Perfect Pluperfect Future Perfect
1 __________ ___________ __________
2 __________ ___________ __________
3 __________ ___________ __________
1 __________ ___________ __________
2 __________ ___________ __________
3 __________ ___________ __________
Notice, now, that the third principal part is the stem for the
perfect system active only. To form the perfect system tense in
the passive voice, Latin uses the fourth principal part of the
verb. Since it uses a different principal part, the Perfect
System Passive is considered to be a different category of
tenses. So there are three tense systems in Latin:
Betty is seen by George.
is being seen
will be seen
would be seen
should be seen
was seen
was being seen
has been seen
had been seen
should have been seen
would have been seen
You can clearly see that the constant in all these modifications
is the verbal form "seen". The verb "to be" is doing all the
work. So let's look at little more closely at the verbal form
"seen".
The third principal part of the English verb is called a "participle". Now listen closely; this is going to be an important definition: A participle is a "verbal adjective". That is, an adjective which is derived from a verb. In fact, that's why we call it a participle, because it "participates" in the essence of both a verb and of an adjective. So in the constructions of the English passive voice, the participle "seen" is actually "modifying" the subject of the verb "to be". I can say "Betty is tall" and "Betty is seen", and these two sentences are analogous. In the predicate of both these sentences the subject further modified, since it is linked to an adjective by the verb "to be".
It may seem bizarre to be thinking of a verbal construction as being essentially adjectival, but watch how we can use participles where their adjectival force is quite obvious:
"the written text",
"the spoken word",
"the destroyed city",
"the bewildered students",
"the beleaguered professor", etc.
The Latin perfect passive system is perfectly analogous to the formation of the English passive voice. The perfect passive system in Latin uses the fourth principal part of the verb, which is then linked to the subject with an inflected form of the verb "sum". The fourth principal part of a Latin verb is called the "Perfect Passive Participle". Let's zero in on all the parts of this description.
The perfect passive participles of all verbs declines just like the first adjectives you learned: just like "magnus, -a, -um". That is, it uses endings of the first declension to modify feminine nouns, endings of the second declension "-us" type to modify masculine nouns, and endings of the second declension "-um" type to modify neuter nouns. The dictionaries tell you this in a number of different ways; but they're all telling you the same thing. Some write out the whole "-us, -a, -um"; others abbreviate it by using only the neuter "-um" or the masculine "-us". So you may see the entry for the fourth principal part of "laudo", for example, given in these three different ways:
Did you guess "eram" -- "I was"? If you did, that's one demerit. Look, the fourth principal part is the "perfect passive participle" and the "perfect" tells you that the action is considered to have been already completed. That is, in the participle itself is the notion of a past event, so "laudatus" could be translated as "having been praised". Therefore you needn't repeat the idea of past completion in the auxiliary verb "to be". So the correct form of the auxiliary is the present tense: "sum". Think of it this way, and I admit this may seem clumsy: "Laudatus sum" means "I am now in the condition of having been praised". We can bring this over into English as either "I was praised" or "I have been praised". So to form the perfect tense passive in Latin, you use the perfect passive participle + the verb "sum" as the auxiliary in the present tense.
Now let's suppose that the subject "I" is feminine. What changes would this necessitate? Well, the participle is a verbal adjective, so it must agree in number, gender and case with whatever it's modifying. If the subject of the verb is feminine, then the participle has to be feminine, nominative, singular to agree with it. So the participle will have be "laudata". Therefore, if a woman is speaking, should would say "Laudata sum" for "I was praised".
PARTICIPLE PERFECT PLUPERFECT FUTURE PERFECT laudatus, -a, -um sum eram ero _________________ __________ __________ __________ _________________ __________ __________ __________ laudati, -ae, -a __________ __________ __________ _________________ __________ __________ __________ _________________ __________ __________ __________
II III IV
amo _______________ _______________ _______________
cogito _______________ _______________ _______________
conservo _______________ _______________ _______________
do _______________ _______________ datus
erro _______________ _______________ _______________
exspecto _______________ _______________ _______________
iuvo _______________ _______________ _______________
laudo _______________ _______________ _______________
libero _______________ _______________ _______________
muto _______________ _______________ _______________
paro _______________ _______________ _______________
servo _______________ _______________ _______________
supero _______________ _______________ _______________
tolero _______________ _______________ _______________
voco _______________ _______________ _______________
(The two exceptions to this regularity of the first conjugation
verbs is "do, dare, dedi, datus", and "[ad]iuvo, -iuvare, -iuvi,
-iutus". If you look closely, however, you'll see that "do" isn't
really a first conjugation verb, since the stem vowel "-a-" is
not long.)
audeo _______________ --------------- --------------- debeo _______________ _______________ _______________ deleo _______________ delevi deletus doceo _______________ _______________ doctus habeo _______________ _______________ _______________ moneo _______________ _______________ _______________ moveo _______________ movi motus remaneo _______________ remansi remansus teneo _______________ _______________ tentus terreo _______________ _______________ _______________ timeo _______________ _______________ --------------- valeo _______________ _______________ --------------- video _______________ vidi visus
ago _______________ _______________ actus
capio _______________ _______________ captus
coepi coeptus
committo _______________ _______________ commissus
curro _______________ _______________ cursus
dico _______________ _______________ dictus
duco _______________ _______________ ductus
diligo _______________ _______________ dilectus
eicio _______________ _______________ eiectus
facio _______________ _______________ factus
fugio _______________ _______________ -------
gero _______________ _______________ gestus
iacio _______________ _______________ iactus
incipio _______________ _______________ inceptus
intellego _______________ _______________ -tellectus
iungo _______________ _______________ iunctus
lego _______________ _______________ lectus
mitto _______________ _______________ missus
neglego _______________ _______________ neglectus
scribo _______________ _______________ scriptus
traho _______________ _______________ tractus
vinco _______________ _______________ victus
vivo _______________ _______________ victus
audio _______________ _______________ auditus invenio _______________ _______________ inventus sentio _______________ _______________ sensus venio _______________ _______________ ventus
So Latin uses the enclitic, and the word the enclitic is attached to is the focus of the question. For example, in the question "Laudatisne filios huius viri?" the point of inquiry is whether you are performing the action of praising. But if we begin the sentence with "the sons" -- "Filiosne huius viri laudatis?" then the focus of the question changes: "Are you praising this man's sons? We can accomplish this effect in English by inflecting our voice when we reach the word that is the point of the question. Now look more closely at each of these questions. Even though each has a different emphasis, all the questions are essentially asking one thing: "If I should turn this question into a statement, would it be true?" That is, the question is about the validity of the predication.
The question "Are you praising this man's sons" is asking whether it is true to say "You are praising this man's sons". We call this kind of question a simple question; it ask for no information that is not contained in its structure. Now look at these questions:
The English interrogative pronouns, as you can see in the examples above, have different cases and even genders. The gender is determined by what is be filled in for, but the case is determined by the way the pronoun is being used in the question.
MASCULINE AND FEMININE INANIMATE
Nom. who what
Gen. whose whose
Acc. whom what
Do you see any similarity between the interrogative pronouns and
the relative pronouns? Of course you do. "Who, whose, and whom"
are all forms that can also be used as relative pronouns. Only
the interrogative pronoun "what" has no use as an relative
pronoun.
The Latin interrogative pronoun also resembles the Latin relative pronoun. In the plural, the forms of the interrogative pronoun are identical to those of the relative pronoun. In the singular many of the forms of the interrogative pronouns overlap with those of the relative pronouns, but there are some differences:
MASCULINE AND FEMININE NEUTER
Nom. _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________
Dat. _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________
Abl. _______________ _______________
MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER
Nom. _______________ _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________
Dat. _______________ _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________
Abl. _______________ _______________ _______________
Let's look at some examples of how the interrogative pronoun
works in Latin. You'll that it has some surprising properties,
which the English interrogative pronoun "who, what", etc.
doesn't have. "Quis librum tibi dedit?" ("Who gave you the
book?") You can tell this sentence is a question, obviously,
because it is introduced with the interrogative pronoun and
because it ends with a question mark. But the English
translation isn't as precise as the Latin. Why not? Look at
"quis". It's nominative because it is used as the subject of the
verb. But what about its number and gender? It's
masculine/feminine in gender and singular in number.
That means that the question was formed in such a way as to imply that there was only one person who gave you the book. Now look at the English "who". Can you tell whether the person asking the question expects there to be only one person who gave you the book? No, you can't. So, in Latin, the questioner reveals more about the kind of answer expected because the pronoun reveals more about the possible antecedent. How would we translate these into English:
"Cuius librum Cicero tibi dedit?"The interrogative pronoun in each of these question is in the genitive case because the point of the question is to learn more about the owner(s) of the book. But each question suggests an different kind of answer. Can you spot the different expectations?
"Quorum librum Cicero tibi dedit?"
"Quarum librum Cicero tibi dedit?"
So what is an "interrogative adjective". Start from the beginning. "Interrogative" means that it will be asking a question. "Adjective" means that it will be modifying a noun in the sentence and to modify a noun an adjective must agree with it in number, gender, and case. Putting these two parts together, we come up with this: an "interrogative adjective" is a word which modifies an noun in a way that asks more information about it. How does this work? Look at these English questions:
Latin also has interrogative adjectives for this purpose, but because Latin is a fully inflected language, the interrogative adjective has many more forms than its English analogue. After all, the Latin interrogative adjective is going to have to agree with masculine, feminine, or neuter nouns in any one of the ten cases and numbers. You'll be pleased to know, however, that you're not going to have to learn anything new, because the Latin interrogative adjective uses the forms of its relative pronoun. Go ahead and write out the forms of the interrogative adjective to refresh your memory. (Remember, it's exactly the same as the relative pronoun).
MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER
Nom. _______________ _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________
Dat. _______________ _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________
Abl. _______________ _______________ _______________
Nom. _______________ _______________ _______________
Gen. _______________ _______________ _______________
Dat. _______________ _______________ _______________
Acc. _______________ _______________ _______________
Abl. _______________ _______________ _______________
Because the interrogative adjective is an adjective, its form is
determined entirely by the noun with which it is agreeing in the
sentence. Like this:
"Quem librum legebatis?" (What (or which) book were you reading?)The interrogative adjective "quem" is singular, accusative, masculine because the noun about which the question is seeking more information is singular, accusative, and masculine. Study these examples:
1. Cui libros dederunt?
__________________________________________________
2. Qui ei libros dederunt?
__________________________________________________
3. A quo libri dati sunt?
__________________________________________________
4. A quibus hi libri lecti erant?
__________________________________________________
5. A quibus discipulis hi libri lecti sunt?
__________________________________________________
6. Quis ab omnibus civibus amatus est?
__________________________________________________
7. Cuius civitatis ille homo erat?
__________________________________________________
8. E qua urbe iste tyrannus venit?
__________________________________________________
9. E quorum urbe iste tyrannus venit?
__________________________________________________
10. Qui vir ab omnibus civibus amatus est?
__________________________________________________
11. Who came from that city?
__________________________________________________
12. Which books did you read?
__________________________________________________
13. To whom were these books given?
__________________________________________________
14. Which students read these books?
__________________________________________________
15. Which citizens loved this man?
__________________________________________________
16. Whose city was loved by that tyrant?
__________________________________________________
17. By whom were those books given to the students?
__________________________________________________
18. By whom was this city loved?
__________________________________________________
19. To which women was the book given?
__________________________________________________
20. To which woman was the book given?
__________________________________________________
senex, senis This word is much more bizarre than Wheelock
lets on. You'll see it mainly as a noun,
meaning "old man" or "old woman". Don't
expect to see it modifying a neuter noun.
It'll always be masculine or feminine.
Because it's really a third declension
adjective, it'll decline like:
senex senes
senis senium
seni senibus
senem senes
seni senibus
novus, -a, -um Like most ancient civilizations, ancient Rome
didn't care much for change. So a way of
asking "What's wrong"? was "Quid novum est"?
01/08/20