Notes on Writing

 

1.     Remember that every reference listed at the end of your proposal or article needs to be referenced in your text.  If it is not referenced in the text it must not be listed in the “References” section.

2.     Similarly, every figure and table must be referenced in the text.  You should not have a figure that just appears out of nowhere.  At the minimum you should have a sentence that says something like: “Figure 1 is a sketch of the proposed design.”  You should then follow this statement with a description of what is shown in figure 1.

3.     When referencing figures you have two options.  You can either say, “Figure 1 is a sketch of the proposed device,” or “The proposed device has 5 main components (Figure 1).”  Do not say, “(Figure 1) is a sketch of the proposed device,” or “The proposed device has 5 main components Figure 1.

4.     The first time you introduce an acronym you must spell it out completely.  The style is: “Amyotropic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) affects 30,000 Americans.”  Do not say: “ALS is Amyotropic Lateral Sclerosis, and it affects 30,000 Americans.”

5.     Pay attention to the difference between “affect” and “effect.”  In general, you will use “affect” as a verb and “effect” as a noun.  For example, in “temperature affects viscosity,” affects is a verb.  In “temperature has an effect on viscosity,” effect is a noun.  Effect can be used as a verb, as in “the hammer effects a knee-jerk reflex.”  However, it’s better in this case just to say, “the hammer causes a knee-jerk reflex.”

6.     Keep quotes to a minimum.  Remember that quotes should generally be used when presenting something that is an opinion.  When expressing fact, it is better to paraphrase.

 

Compare:

          According to Johnson et al. (1999), meningitis is the most painful of all neural disorders.

 

to:

          Johnson et al. (1999) have said, “meningitis is the most painful of all neural disorders.”

 

          In this case, the quote is effective.

 

Compare:

          Meningitis affects 50,000 Americans each year (Johnson et al., 1999).

 

to:

          According to Johnson et al. (1999), “Meningitis affects 50,000 Americans each year.”

 

          In this case the version with the quote sounds as if you are shedding some doubt on what Johnson et al. have said.

 

7.     Some terms should not be used in professional writing.  A few are listed in Table 1:

8.     Always use complete sentences, except, possibly, for a figure or table caption.   You can say, “Figure 1: Sketch of the final design.”  Everywhere else you must use complete sentences.

9.     The word “It’s” is a contraction of “it is.” It is not the possessive of “it.”  Correct: “It’s 5 pm.”  Incorrect, “It’s watch says 5 pm.”

10. You should not use contractions.  You should not say, “The device can’t be used in cold weather.” Instead you should say, “The device cannot be used in cold weather.”  Similarly, do not use haven’t, doesn’t, wouldn’t, etc.

11. In citing references, remember that “et al.” is the correct abbreviation, not “et al” or et. al” or et. al.”

12. Pay attention to the format for citing references, and be consistent.  You should use either: “Johnson et al. (2002) developed the first viable artificial brain.”  or “An artificial brain will require 5 billion electrical connections (Johnson et al., 2002).  In the second form, separate the author name from the date with a comma.  You can separate multiple citations with a semicolon, as in (Johnson et al., 2002; Friedrich et al., 2002).  Never list more than one name in the author list.  In other words, do not say, (Johnson, Robertson et al., 2002).  Also, do not say (Stan Johnson et al., 2002).

13. It is also not appropriate to spell out an author’s complete name.  You should not say, “Dr. Stan Johnson developed the first artificial brain (Johnson et al., 2002).  It’s much better to just say, “Johnson et al., (2002) developed the first artificial brain.”

14. Make sure that your grammatical constructions are parallel.  For example, instead of “The proposed device is practical, inexpensive, and it provides comfort to the patient,” you should say, “The proposed device is practical, inexpensive, and comfortable to the patient.”

15. The semicolon is used to separate two sentences that are closely related.  If you use a semicolon, look at the expressions on each side.  If they are not both complete sentences, then the semicolon is not the correct punctuation.

16. Avoid the use of “etc.”  It makes you sound like you’re too lazy to list all of the other important items on the list.

 

Subjunctive

  1. The subjunctive tense is used in cases of doubt.  Students of languages like French and Spanish are highly aware of the subjunctive tense.  In English, this tense is less obvious, but it does exist.  Some cases are:
    1. If I were you   (Not “If I was you.”).
    2. If there were a device that cured cancer … (Not “If there was a device that cured cancer”).

 

The Dangling Participle

The –ing ending on a verb can perform two separate functions.  It can turn the verb into a gerand (a noun), or it can turn it into a past participle.  Compare the following:

 

Eating is good.

I am eating.

I was eating.

 

In the first sentence, “eating” is a verb that has been converted to a noun, and it has become the subject of the sentence.  In the second and third sentences, “eating” is still a verb form, the participle.  One of the unfortunate aspects of the English language is that it does not distinguish between the gerand and the present (or past) participle.  (A few hundred years ago there was a difference in the form of these two, but language is constantly changing and it has evolved to eliminate the distinction.  One need only pick up the plays of Shakespear or a copy of “The Canterbury Tales” to see that dramatic changes in language can occur in only a few hundred years).  Not surprisingly, having a form that can perform more than one function can cause difficulties. 

 

A construction that often occurs is demonstrated by the sentence, “Eating the pretzel, I slipped on a rock.”  This sentence could be rephrased as, “While I was eating the pretzel, I slipped on a rock.”  This restatement highlights the past participle nature of “eating,” and it also makes it clear who was eating the pretzel.  In the original sentence, “Eating the pretzel, I slipped on a rock,” it is clear who was eating the pretzel because the subject, “I” is the first noun that follows the comma.  But what if we said, “Eating the pretzel, the black cat crossed my path.”  By strict rules of grammar, this statement means, “While a black cat was eating the pretzel, the black cat crossed my path.”  It is likely that this meaning was not intended by the writer.  Because it is now not clear what noun the dangling participle belongs to, it is called a “dangling participle.”

 

The rule is that when you use a construction that starts with a participle, the first thing after the comma needs to be the subject of the participle.  If not, you are breaking the laws of grammar, risking ridicule from various readers and, more importantly, risking being misunderstood.

 

Some manuals on writing go so far as to suggest that you avoid words that end in –ing altogether.  This rule seems a tad restrictive to me.  However, one should be careful when using words with –ing.  For example, consider the sentences, “Eating the pretzel, I slipped on a rock,” (where “eating” is a past participle) and “Eating the pretzel was straightforward,” (where “eating” is a gerand). After “Eating the pretzel,” it is still not obvious to the reader whether eating is a gerand or a participle.  This ambiguity makes your reader think harder than he/she normally would have to.  The extra thought is not substantial in this case because the sentence is short, but if the sentence gets more complicated, the reader can become more confused.  Try these two sentences:

 

“Eating the pretzel with my fingers, which were covered in honey, I became frustrated.”

“Eating the pretzel with my fingers, which were covered in honey, was the most fun I ever had.”

 

As the –ing word becomes more separated from the part of the sentence that indicates its part of speech, the probability of the sentence being misunderstood increases.

 

This

In writing, the word “this” is best used as a demonstrative adjective, not a pronoun.  It always needs to modify something.  Do not say, “This causes the patient severe pain and discomfort.”  Instead, say, “This complication causes the patient severe pain and discomfort.”

 

Malapropisms

Mrs. Malaprop was a character in the play “The Rivals” (R. B. Sheridan, 1775) who was fond of her vocabulary and unwittingly misused words.  The malapropism is a common literary device in comedies.  Examples can be found in Archie Bunker’s use of English in the sit-com “All in the Family,” but earlier examples can be found in many of Shakespear’s works.

 

Make sure that you know what a word means when you use it.  Otherwise, it could have devastating consequences.  Consider this example from a research proposal:

 

“We will use sophistical analysis software to accomplish these goals.”

 

The author may have intended to use the word “statistical,” or may have mistyped “sophisticated.”  In any case, the definition of the word, “Seemingly correct, but erroneous,” was almost certainly not what the author intended.

 

The “Time is Right” Statement (Proposals)

First of all, I do not want you to use the phrase, “The time is right ….”  I want you to indicate something that has changed recently that either makes the project feasible, or has placed increased urgency on the project.  For example, “The recent development Pentium class processors with GHz clock speeds has made the development of such a real-time system feasible,” or “There is an increased need for this type of system because of the recently increased political awareness of the threat from biochemical weapons.”  It is not sufficient to say, “Because this type of system has not yet been developed, it is now time to create it.”  The reviewer will not believe that you are a super genius who just happens to be able to make something that has never been made before.  He/she will be more convinced if it is clear that you plan to take advantage of some recently-developed technology or that nobody else has wanted to develop the system before simply because it didn’t seem important until now.

 

Decision Matrix (Design Proposals)

In your decision matrix, do not label your alternative designs as “Design 1,” “Design 2,” and “Design 3.”  Instead, use a descriptive phrase that tells the reader something about the design.  For example, “Pressure Sensitive Mask,” “CO2 detector,” and “Respiratory Rate Measurement.”  Your reader does not want to keep flipping back to your text to find out what “Design 2” is.

 

Preliminary Results (Proposals)

  1. Provide an introductory paragraph to the preliminary results section.  Do not simply start out by describing your experiment.  State the question that you are trying to answer with your experiment (or calculation).
  2. Preliminary results are most convincing when they include some recorded data.  Do not just tell the reader that you did something.  Provide data, including a graph of the data and, if appropriate, a test for significance.
  3. If you do some kind of calculation as part of your preliminary results, be sure to interpret it and state how the calculation is relevant to your project.
  4. The following should not be put in your Preliminary Results section.  a) Descriptions of experiments that you plan to make (these should go in the “Evaluation” section).  b) Descriptions of your qualifications (these should go in the “Qualifications” section). c) Information that you have obtained from library research (this information should be in your “Background” section).

 

Data Models

When you use a model for your data (such as a least squares fit or a power-law model), you need to state why you selected that model.  Generally, the linear least squares fit model is the easiest to justify since it merely says that “y increases (or decreases) with x.”  If this relationship is the only thing you can predict about the data a priori, a least squares fit is appropriate.  You can also consider whether you expect y=0 at x=0 (in which case you already know that the y-intercept is 0) or whether some nonlinear behavior is expected (which might lead to a power law, an exponential, or some other function).  If your model is based on a similar model from a journal article, you must reference that article when you introduce the model.

 

Statistic Analysis

You cannot discuss your statistical analysis without stating what measurements you intend to make.  In other words, do not simply say, “a T-test will be applied to the data.”  Instead, you can say, “The flow rates measured for the device with the regulator will be compared to the flow rates measured for the device without the regulator by a T-test.”

 

Editing Symbols

 

I use the following symbols for editing text:

 

Separate:        “incase” becomes “in case.”

 

Delete:            he device is very expensive” becomes “the device is expensive”

 

Close up:        “can not” becomes “cannot”

 

insert:          “I ate sandwich” becomes “I ate the sandwich”

 

Interchange:          “dialysis costly is  becomes “dialysis is costly”

 

new paragraph:

 

 

 


Words You Do Not Need

 

Get rid of any words you do not need.  Here are a few examples I have run into.  (Revisons are in parentheses):

 

“The addition of more components to the existing design must be designed as to not inhibit sleep.”  (The added components must not inhibit sleep).

 

“The major problem that I intend to address is that standard axillary crutch users need a safer and easier way to ascend and descend stairs.”  (Standard axillary crutch users need a safer and easier way to ascend and descend stairs.)

 

“Stair climbing requires a certain amount of strength and confidence.”  (Stair climbing requires strength and confidence.)

 

“The person can’t really feel them.”  (The person cannot feel them).

 

“The electrodes would have to be cordless and be able to be detected by the sensors.”  (The electrodes would have to be cordless and detectable by the sensors.)

 

“Installing the driver would cost a lot of money plus paying for the software and electrodes would be expensive also.” (The software, the electrodes, the driver, and installation would be expensive.)

 

“My group measured an EKG of the heart.”  (My group measured an EKG).

 

“The importance of an effective drug delivery system lies in the population effected, which is basically the whole of society.”  (Nearly everyone would benefit from a more effective drug delivery system.)

 

“Using a laser pointer, there is a risk of eye injury because disabled people might use the pointer to point to a person and by mistake they will point the laser to their eye.”  (Laser pointers can cause eye injury if they are pointed into a person’s eyes).

 

“The limiting factor in TDD systems is goverened primarily by skin permeability.”  (TDD systems are limited by skin permeability.)

 

“The flexibility of the device will be ensured to fit on children from ages one to five.”  (The device must fit on children from ages one to five.)

 

“Research shows that kidney transplantations are the optimum treatment.” (Kidney transplantations are the optimum treatment (James et al., 1999).

 

“An article attributes such discrepancies to be not only genetic, but also due to access to health care for certain minorities (Obrador et al., 2002).  (Obrador et al. (2002) attribute such discrepancies to both genetic disorders and lack of health care access for certain minorities.)

 

“The device will be able to be replaced by the user.” (The device will be replaceable by the user).

 

“There are two ways to go by troubleshooting a medical device.”  (There are two ways to troubleshoot a medical device).

 

“The problem that will be addressed upon completion of this project ….”  (The problem that will be addressed by this project...)

 

“In a recent study, it has been found that ….”  (A recent study found that ….)

 

“This infection is one that can go unnoticed.”  (This infection can go unnoticed).

 

“The need for an improved surgical swab is apparent.”  (An improved surgical swab is needed.)

 

“However, we know that cotton can leave lint.”  (However, cotton can leave lint).

 

“As you can see, each one of the solutions to the problem is flawed.” (Each of the solutions to the problem is flawed).

 

“We learn from Fluid Mechanics that the greater the surface area touching the fluid, the faster the absorption occurs.”  (Absorption is proportional to the surface area in contact with the fluid).

 

“Another way to evaluate if the design is functioning as desired is …” (Another way to evaluate the design is ….).

 

Orthography

 

Spell checkers are highly valuable and should be used regularly, but they cannot a correctly spelled word that is used in an incorrect context.  Here are a few of the spelling errors I ran into:

 

Context

Correct Word

When ascending, a felling of some safety existed

feeling

I could only were the device when I was extremely fatigued.

wear

Multimeters and sauntering irons will be used in the laboratory.

soldering

small enough to put into a circuit with ought dramatically increasing its original size.

without

In today’s fast paste and competitive world…

paced

The synthetic fiber could cost any wear from …

anywhere

Obstructive sleep apnea affects the quality of life of many who suffer from this depilatory disease.

debilitating (unless obstructive sleep apnea causes hair loss).

Our approach to the mapping of the atria makes this device potable.

portable (I do not think that the investigators intended to drink the device).

 

Borrowed Figures

 

When you borrow a figure from another source, be sure to provide an acknowledgement of the source in the figure caption.

 

Also, be sure that you include the legend key.  In some cases, inclusion of the key may require extra effort.  For example, the key may be in the original legend, rather than on the figure itself, whereas you need to write your own legend.  Alternately, the plot may be in color or may otherwise make it difficult to distinguish between different patterns that represent different data.  In this case, you must ensure that your reader understands the legend.  You may need to reconstruct the graph yourself in Excel or some other graphing package.  Make sure that you then state that the figure has been “adapted” from the stated source (e.g. “adapted from Minos et al., 2001”).

 

Significant Digits

 

Report only a reasonable number of significant digits.  Unless you are trying to determine an exact value for some universal constant, such as the speed of sound, the gravitational constant, or , you should not report values to more than 3 digits.  Even 3 digits is questionable in many situations.  Here are some particularly bad examples that I have encountered:

 

Resistance = 2.436071429 ± 0.3088%

 

Think about this for a second.  If you know that the error is on the order of 0.3%, what is the use of reporting the value to 10 digits?  Secondly, what is the point of reporting the error to within 4 digits?  It’s an error estimate, for crying out loud!  One digit should be plenty.

 

Louisiana Tech Biomedical Senior Design

Steven A. Jones