To go to the Table of Contents

Technical Writing papers as well as papers in most fields of research use the scientific method as an organizing medium--going from problem to tentative solution to researched data to a supported conclusion and speculation about applications of the solution. Logical Analysis in science uses the Scientific Method as a means of discovering and validating information. The Scientific Method follows these steps:

• Selection of a Problem to be solved;
• Preliminary research on the problem;
• Development of a Hypothesis--a tentative solution or projected conclusion;
• In-depth research;
• Proving or disproving the hypothesis;
• If the hypothesis is disproven, the selection of a new hypothesis;
• If the hypothesis is proven, then the problem has been solved and the solution must be made available to others in the field through publication; Others in the field validate the solution through repetition of the experiment or examination of the research data, which must be made available by the researcher (often in the published article). Then, the hypothesis has grown to the status of a conclusion; if the problem area it covers is large enough, this conclusion may become a theory (such as the theory of relativity) or may become law (such as the law of gravitation). Because hypotheses, theories, and laws are based on specific data, it is possible that new data or new analysis of old data (through a new hypothesis) could invalidate them. For an interesting discussion of how scientific change comes about over time through new hypotheses, read Thomas Kuhn's book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.

Within the Scientific Method, two type of logical reasoning are used: Inductive Reasoning and Deductive Reasoning.

• Induction is a form of reasoning that examines many specific instances or examples or experiments until a definite pattern is seen in all of them; from that recognition of a pattern, a hypothesis or even a conclusion may be reached. Modern science is based on Inductive reasoning; any conclusion must have plenty of supporting evidence.
  
  If one finds that the growth of a certain bacteria is retarded by a certain fungus, that is a one-time observation; however, if one finds that each time the experiment is tried, the fungus retards the growth of the bacteria, one can reach the hypothesis that Fungus X retards the growth of Bacteria Z. That hypothesis has been reached Inductively because it used several instances of the phenomenon in question and each instance seemed to support the same hypothesis.
 
• Deduction takes the conclusions or generalizations reached through inductive reasoning and applies them to a new specific case. Thus, Deduction allows one to reach a conclusion about the new case without examining the new case. Learning through experience is one example of deductive reasoning. If one has become ill several times after eating a certain food, one may then avoid that food, feeling that one does not have to eat it each time to see if it will make one ill again. That is a case of deductive reasoning: Food X makes me ill. This dish contains Food X. Therefore, it will make me ill. I will not eat it.

• Major Premise: All humans are mortal (a generalization or hypothesis reached through inductive reasoning)
• Minor Premise: Socrates is a human (the new specific case, the man Socrates)
• Conclusion: Socrates is mortal (because if all things in the class or category of humans are mortal, and Socrates must be placed in the class of humans, then Socrates must be a member of that class; therefore, he is mortal, because all members of that class are mortal)

• All humans are mortal
• Socrates is mortal
• Socrates is a human

Also, one must consider the Truth of the conclusion. If the conclusion accords with reality, it can be said to be true. In the case of the above syllogism, which is not valid, the conclusion is true--because the historical figure Socrates was a human, one of the race of them inhabiting the planet Earth.

But, premises do not create truth, and the syllogism is a way of testing only whether one is drawing valid conclusions--not necessarily true ones. A syllogism may be valid and yet its conclusion may not be true; on the other hand, the premises may be false but the conclusion could be true. However, if the premises are true and the conclusion is valid, the conclusion should also be true. Only in that form is the categorical syllogism trustworthy so far as truth is concerned.

The following section contains information on the following graphics-related topics:

• Propositional Knowledge
• Simultaneous and Successive Presentation of Information
• Graphics that Represent Objects, Abstractions, and Relationships, with an example of each:
• The Numbering and Reference to Graphics in the Text

Simultaneous and Successive Presentation of Information: Propositions can be expressed singly or in groups. When language expresses a proposition, it does so in a Sequential or Successive fashion--through words, combination of words into sentences, combinations of sentences into paragraphs, and combinations of paragraphs into whole sections or whole compositions. But, to get the full meaning, the whole piece must be read through from beginning to end--Successively. So, propositions can be presented one at at time but not several at the same time (of course, in the reader's mind, propositions can be combined and new meanings derived.

Graphics are able to present several propositions at the same time--Simultaneously. The benefit of a graphic is that it can embed or combine many pieces of information that the reader can see all at the same time. Of further benefit, the reader can see if the combination of propositions yields any new information that can be seen only in the combination of the data or propositions. Such things as stock market predictions are based on such combinations of data viewed simultaneously.

The graphics themselves can be classed as three types:  Graphics that represent Objects, Abstractions, and Relationships:

• Those that represent Objects, informing the reader about the real-world appearance and layout of physical things. Photographs and illustrations are two common forms of graphics representing objects.
 
• Those that represent Relationships, showing the reader how two propositions or kinds of information interact with each other. Bar charts and line graphs are two common forms of graphics representing relationships.
 
• Those that represent Abstractions. This type of graphic can sometimes be thought of as a data-model. Data can be gathered about things that cannot be literally seen as real-world objects because of their size or inaccessibility. Information about microscopic entities in living cells or information gathered about atomic structure are two such areas. The data that is gathered about such areas can then be assembled into a data model, which pictures the projected relationship of propositions gathered by research or done partly through educated speculation. The structure of DNA and the early models of the atom are two such Abstractions.

Source: http://shark/gsfc.nasa.gov/TOOLS /usage_plots.pl/h/804556800/804556800

Graphic showing an Abstraction:
 

Figure 3
Early Model of the Atom
 

The Numbering and Reference to Graphics in the Text: Graphics should be numbered and have titles, both given above the graphic itself. An example is given in the examples of the Long Report (listed in the Table of Contents). Also, graphics must be mentioned in the report before the reader encounters the graphic itself. This reference should be phrased like the following: "As can be seen in Figure 7, the recent increase in rainfall in Louisiana has given a quantum leap in mushroom growth." Do not use this pattern: "The recent increase in rainfall in Louisiana has increased mushroom growth (Fig. 7)." This last example makes it appear as if the Figure is unnecessary or unimportant.

These other terms and concepts are explained either in the English 303 on Internet material or are covered in the textbook. If you have questions, please come by my office, telephone, or e-mail.

• Technical Writing Audiences: (supplement this brief material with the information from your textbook)
 
• Expert: A reader (or writer) having an advanced degree or a great deal of experience in the subject field. Experts tend to do their own writing because only they have sufficient understanding of the subject. When experts write for other experts, for expert-level audiences, they tend to use the jargon or language of their field, as a kind of shorthand, making the writing difficult for non-experts to understand.
 
• Technician: A technician may not have an advanced degree in the subject field; however, the technician audience is best defined by the interest of the technician. The technician is primarily interested in practical applications in the field rather than being interested primarily in theory about the field. Thus, a technician might install computers as a technician; a computer scientist, an expert, might design the structure of future computer designs. On the job, the technician may read or write highly developed and complex manuals covering complex equipment such as telephone switching equipment. These manuals would be for use in-house, rather than being written for laymen.
 
• Layman or General Reader: The layman is best defined as anyone who does not have an advanced degree in the subject field and who does not work in the field as a technician. The Layman reads for information. The layman may develop specialized interests in field and may read for theory or practical applications in some particular area. Computer manuals are good examples of layman-oriented writing, writing designed to bring the layman up to a technician level in using, for instance, some particular wordprocessing program. Layman with specialized interests or needs are a one of the largest audiences for technical writing.
 
• Executive: The executive audience is a specialized one; the executive has to make business or organizational decisions based on the recommendations of others. The executive is thus most interested in the conclusions and recommendations included in reports and studies. The executive may know little about the subject material of a report and may have to trust the people who research, analyze, and write the reports and papers to offer reliable conclusions and recommendations. For example, the chief officer of a large company such as Sony would be called on to make decisions about a wide range of products and markets; most likely, this officer would have to depend on material developed by others to help in those decisions.
 

• Types of Abstracts:
 
• Informative: An informative abstract uses, as much as possible, the language of the original document and gives information, in rough proportion to the original, about the entire document being abstracted. The informative abstract is a shortened version of the original, sounding like the original document but in a much briefer form. The informative abstract may say, "The problem of the unit's electrical supply needs to be given the full attention of the company."
 
• Descriptive: The descriptive abstract is what used to be called a summary: it is a shortened version of the original that is in the language of the person doing the abstracting rather than in the language of the original document. The descriptive abstract is the abstracter discussing the original document rather than reproducing it in a short form. The Descriptive Abstract may say, "In this paper, the author discusses the problem of the electrical supply."
 

• White Space
• Formatting
• Technical Writing Audiences
• Headings and Heading Theory
• Memorandum Form and Letter Form [your proposal is in Memorandum form]
• Methods of text organization [such as chronological and spatial; the textbook has several sections on organization of texts and paragraphs]
• Information about paper types, such processes and instructions
• Grammar:
• Mood
• Tense
• Voice
• Simple Sentence
• Complex Sentence
• Compound Sentence
• Definition of a Clause
• Definition of a Phrase
• Definition of a Sentence in Terms of Clauses

This list in not intended to be all-inclusive. If you have questions about what you need to know or need clarification of terms, definitions, or concepts, call, e-mail, or come by my office.

 You may find the following resource useful for for research and exploring terms and concepts in technical writing and in English:

 Resources for the Study of Language, Literature, and Composition

 This listing can also be accessed through the Table of Contents.